What is a transistor? A modern transistor is an electronic device that uses a semiconductor to amplify or switch electronic
Relays are electronic switches used when an independent low-voltage signal is needed to control a high-power circuit. They commonly use
It is an easy-to-use three-terminal adjustable-voltage regulator. The LM317 voltage regulator circuit requires only two external resistors to set the
What is Bridge rectifier? A bridge rectifier is an electrical circuit that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
What is stability of control system ? Stability refers to the ability of a closed-loop system to maintain a state
PWM’s full form is Pulse width modulation. It is a technique used in electronics to encode analog information in form
What is a clipper circuit? Clipper circuits, also known as clippers, limiters, or slicers, selectively remove a portion of an
What is Power factor in AC circuits? Electricity primarily travels through AC waveforms, and the efficiency of this transmission is
What is a Brushed DC motor? Brushed DC motors represent one of the oldest, most cost-effective, and straightforward categories among
Classification of DC motors DC motors vary based on the arrangement of connections between the field winding and the armature,
What is Demultiplexer? A demultiplexer, also referred to as a Demux or data selector, functions as a digital circuit receiving
Digital logic gates are essential components in digital circuits, executing logical operations on binary inputs (zeros and ones) to generate
A transmission gate is a type of analog switch used in digital and analog circuit design. It functions as a
A multiplexer (often abbreviated as “mux”) is a digital circuit that selects one of several input signals and forwards it
A D latch is a fundamental sequential logic circuit element used in digital electronics. It is commonly used to store
What is an encoder? An encoder is a digital circuit that transforms M (< 2N) digital inputs into distinct code
Flip-Flop vs Latch Flip-flops and latches serve as essential components in digital electronics, enabling the storage and transfer of binary
What is a Flash ADC? One of the fastest ways to convert an analog signal to a digital one is
What is Digital to Analog (D/A) conversion? The process of conversion of a digital input signal (1s and 0s) into
What is Delta-Sigma modulation? The Delta-Sigma (ΔΣ) modulation is a closed-loop oversampling technique involving a 1-bit ADC, an error integrator,
What is an analog to digital converter (ADC)? An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic device or circuit that converts
What is Routh Stability criteria? The Routh stability criterion is a mathematical technique employed to ascertain whether all the roots
Identifying positive feedback system, Transfer function of positive feedback system, Exponential growth, Runaway, Snowball effect
What is a control system? Types of control system, Open loop and closed loop control system, Advantages and disadvantages of
Definition of PID control, Steady state error, Overshoot and ringing, Proportional-integral control, MATLAB modeling
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, Lenz’s law, Varying magnetic field, Direction of current, Faraday’s experiments
How is torque generated in a DC motor? When a DC machine operates under load, whether functioning as a motor
Magnitude and phase measurement across frequency, S-parameter measurement, Reflection parameters, Transmission parameters, Architecture of modern VNA, Ports
CMOS technology advantages, Substrate preparation, Oxidation, Etching, Patterning, Photoresists, Ion-implantation, Self-aligned source/drain patterning
Supply voltage fluctuations, local charge storage, Power supply rejection, Switching noise suppression, High frequency stability of amplifiers and pure analog
Simplification of circuit analysis, Thevein-equivalent circuit, Norton equivalent circuit, multiple simultaneous equations to a single equation with a single variable
Electrical power measurement device, Principle of operation, Electrodynamometer, Digital Wattmeter, Applications, Working principle
Measurement of voltage, Shunt connection, Analog voltmeter, AC/DC moving iron voltmeter, Digital voltmeter
Measurement of current, Series connection, Analog ammeter, Shunt resistance, Digital ammeter
In reality, the voltage source’s output voltage depends on the current being drawn, and the current source’s output current depends
Linear circuit analysis, voltage source replaced with shorts, current source replaced with open, KCL and KVL, Current through load resistance.
A typical ring oscillator consists of an odd number of NOT gates arranged in a loop, with its output alternating
Types of electronic oscillators, relaxation oscillator, harmonic oscillator, condition for oscillations.
The Barkhausen criterion is a mathematical condition to determine oscillation frequency. Sometimes it is also used to determine if the
Relaxation oscillator, Square wave oscillator, RC time constant, Free running frequency.
Square and Triangular wave generator, Relaxation oscillator vs astable multivibrator, Open loop vs closed loop triangular waveform generator
Model of VCO, Tuning range, VCO gain factor, LC VCO, Timer 555 VCO, VCO using opamp
Piezo-electricity, Mechanical resonant, Series resonance, Parallel Resonance, Colpitts oscillator using crystal, Q-factor of crystal oscillator
Wein bridge circuit, Frequency response, Loop gain, Amplitude limiter circuit
Single RC stage phase shift, 3-stage RC phase shift oscillator, Barhausen-criteria
Symbol of thermistors, NTC, PTC, Steinhart-Hart equation, Self-heating, Thermal time constant, Applications of thermistors.
Linear silicon-based temperature sensor. Self-heating and temperature drift. Less calibration.
Photodiodes, Pinned photodiodes, RGB color model, Color sensor unit, Bayer mosaic pattern, Lag effect, CMOS active pixel image sensor
Bend sensor, Two terminal device, Passive element, Variable resistance, Potentiometer, Working principle
Working principle of PIR sensor, Detection element, Dual sensor setup, Fresnal lens, Signal processing, Applications of PIR sensor
What is accelerometer? An accelerometer is a sensor or device that measures acceleration. It is a fundamental component of many
Any negative feedback system with significant gain would attempt to minimize the error at the input terminals. This means that
Zero flux method, Accuracy, low-drift over temperature, Winding detection, Hall element detection, Flux gate detection
Op amp offset voltage, sources of offset in an amplifier, Way to reduce offset in an opamp, Trimming, Dynamic offset
Signal reconstruction, Sampling theorem, Aliasing, Anti-aliasing filter, Practical example of aliasing
What is a pipeline ADC? A pipeline ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) is a type of ADC that divides the conversion process
Application of optoisolator, Photodetector, LED, Galvanic isolation, Datasheet of a typical optoisolator
Hall element, Magnetic field measurement, Hall-sensor V-B characteristics, internal working diagram of Hall-sensor, Head-on detection and sideways detection
Direction of induced electric field, Changing magnetic flux, Lenz law and Faraday’s law
Average current, Switched capacitor low pass filter, Switched capacitor high pass filter, Active switched capacitor filter
Passband ripple, roll-off rate, 0.5% ripple chebychev filters, poles/order of filters.
Q enhancement, Positive feedback, Active filters, Low pass filter, RC filter, Transfer function
Diodes, MOSFETs, Gate drivers, Zero crossing detector
Taps, Wiper, Temperature coefficient, End-to-End resistance, SPI compatible serial interface, resistance tolerance, TPL0501
Losses in transformer, Capacitive or inductive loading of transformer, Power triangle.
5V regulator, heat dissipation, dropout voltage, 3-terminal device, application circuit, features, adjustable output voltage, etc.
Temperature independent reference, Startup circuit, PTAT, CTAT, Sub-1V bandgap circuit, CMOS compatible bandgap circuit.
Phase relationship, Construction, Mutual inductance, Primary and Secondary windings, Physical windings, Lenz law, Right-hand thumb rule.
Methods and necessity of galvanic isolation, Transformer, Relays, Opto-isolators, Hall-effect sensors, Applications
Kirchoff’s current law, Kirchoff’s voltage law, Node, Mesh, Branch, Loop, Lumped circuit, Distributed circuit
Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL), Meshes (loops), Supermesh, Dependent sources
Open load voltage (Thevenin voltage), Equivalent resistance by shorting voltage source and opening current sources (Thevenin resistance), Simplified network analysis
Power amplifier source and load resistance matching, Transmission line impedance, Radiofrequency impedance matching
Short load current (Norton current), Equivalent resistance by shorting voltage source and opening current sources (Norton resistance), Simplified network analysis
Ohm’s law defines the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance. It is a fundamental law in electronics—measurement setup of Ohm’s
Audio Frequency (20-20kHz), Isolation, Step-up/down transformer, Impedance matching, multitap audio transformers.
Turns ratio, Impedance ratio, Primary/secondary side of the transformer, Simplified load diagram of a transformer.
Principle of operation and voltage ratio, Construction and application, Copper savings in auto-transformer, Advantages and Disadvantages of an auto-transformer
What is Translinear principle? The word translinear refers to the property of bipolar transistors (BJTs) where the transconductance of a
IC 741 op amp is the most popular general-purpose operational amplifier in history. It can be found easily in the
Reference voltage, hysterisis, Debouncing, Window comparator, Opamp comparator, Schmitt trigger
Self inductance, Change in magnetic flux, Mutual inductance, Lenz’s law, Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Amplifier, comparator, super diode, voltage addition, voltage subtraction, voltage integration, voltage differentiator, voltage to current converter, peak detector, rectifier
A voltage differentiator is a circuit used in electronics to produce an output voltage that is proportional to the rate
Difference amplifier, Buffer input, Precision gain, Integrated resistor’s mismatch, Monolithic instrumentation amplifier
A voltage integrator, also known as an integrator circuit, is a type of analog electronic circuit that performs mathematical integration
A difference amplifier, also known as a differential amplifier, is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between
Inverting summing amplifier, Non-inverting summing amplifier, General summing amplifier equation, Audio mixer circuit, Signal processing, Analog to Digital converter
In a non-inverting opamp configuration, the output voltage is in the same phase as the input voltage. The input signal
The inverting operational amplifier is a fixed-gain amplifier producing an opposite output polarity voltage for a given input voltage, as
Resistor color code, IEC markings, E-series resistors, Tolerance of resistors, Power rating of resistors, Temperature coefficient of resistors
Fixed and variable resistors, Sense resistors, Light dependent resistors, Potentiometers and trimpots
Capacitance, Voltage rating, Polarity, Tolerance, Equivalent series resistance (ESR), Equivalent series inductance (ESL), Tangent loss angle, Leakage current, Temperature stability,
Polarized-unpolarized, Ceramic, MLCC, Aluminium electrolytic, Tantalum, Film capacitors, Super capacitors, Mica and paper capacitors
Capacitive reactance, impedance, phase shift, frequency, Capacitor charging and discharging, current-voltage relationship, filter circuits, AC analysis, power factor correction
Construction of supercapacitor, Principle of operation of supercapacitor, Electrochemical double layer capacitor (ELDC), Difference between Supercapacitor, electrolytic capacitor and Li-ion
Unit of resistance, Ohms, Symbol of resistors and potentiometer, Types of resistors, Resistor color code, Power rating of resistor, Application
Linear voltage regulator, LDO (low dropout regulator), Error amplifier, Pass transistor, Efficiency, Supply noise/ripple, Voltage accuracy, Load-line regulation, Power rating
Efficiency, Buck, Boost, Buck-boost, Inverting, Flyback regulator, Continous and Discontinuous conversion mode
Zener clamp, MOV, clamp diodes, SCR crowbar, TVS (transient voltage suppressor), e-fuse
Construction, Advantages and disadvantages over electromechanical relays, No moving parts, Input circuit of SSR, Output circuit of SSR, Applications, AC
Introduction, Advantages and disadvantages of triac, Symbol and construction of Triac, Operation of Triac, Current-Voltage relationship of Triac, Triac control
Bi-directional switch, No gate electrode, Symmetric current-voltage relationship, Triggering of Triacs, Holding current
Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), unidirectional, Construction, I-V characteristics, PNPN, Gate, Anode, Cathode, Diode vs SCR, Data-sheet specifications
Energy storage element, capacitance, parallel plate capacitor, permittivity, dielectric, voltage rating of capacitors
Small signal model, high-frequency and low-frequency model, Common Drain, Common Gate, Common Source, Transconductance, thermal noise, flicker noise, capacitances,etc.
Clipper: DC level cuts, Clamper: DC level shifter, RC and diode, Implementation and Waveform
Primary coil, Secondary coil, step-up, step-down, magnetic flux, Ideal and real transformer, losses in a transformer
Advantages of compound transistors, Darlington-pair (CC-CE), Sziklai Darlington, CC-CB stage, Frequency response, Input impedance, Phase reversal in BJT op-amps.
Inductance, Circuit analysis, Inductor symbol, Non idealities of inductors, Types of inductor, Air core, Toroidal etc.
Operation and working, Cross Section, Current and Voltage characteristics
Operation and working, Cross Section, Current and Voltage characteristics
Memory devices, Tunneling, Hot carrier injection, Aging, Non-volatile memory (NVM), Programming the NVM
A level shifter circuit is used to convert signals from one voltage level to another while maintaining the shape of
Simplified cross-section diagram of PNP BJT, Small signal model, Symbol of PNP BJT, Single stage amplifiers (CE, CC, CB), Biasing
Simplified cross-section diagram of NPN BJT, Small signal model, Symbol of NPN BJT, Single stage amplifiers (CE, CC, CB), Biasing
Parasitic BJT in CMOS, lateral n-p-n and vertical p-n-p, SCR, subtrate resistance, guard rings, Positive feedback, epitaxial process etc.
Dependent sources in a circuit are those whose voltage or current output is determined by another voltage or current within
What is R-2R resistor network/ladder? The R-2R resistor ladder as the name suggest is a network of resistors which has
Architecture of SAR ADC, Binary search, Working of SAR ADC, Application of SAR ADC, Capacitive charge redistribution DAC
The SR flip-flop and latch, also known as the Set-Reset flip-flop, is a fundamental sequential logic circuit element used in
The JK flip-flop is a type of sequential logic circuit that serves as a memory element, capable of storing one
Inductors in series, Inductors in parallel, Series and Parallel circuits of inductors.
Capacitance in series, Capacitance in parallel, Series and Parallel circuits of capacitance, capacitor voltage divider step response and AC response.
Resistance in series, Resistance in parallel, Combination of series and parallel.
Kirchoff’s current law (KCL), Reference node, G matrix, Nodal analysis with a voltage source, Super node, Modified nodal analysis
Voltage drop, Power efficiency, Headroom, Feedback opamp, Bandwidth, Saturation, Output voltage range, Current limitation by opamp.
What is L293 motor driver IC? A motor driver, commonly an integrated circuit chip, plays a crucial role in managing
Direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors, constant current drivers, Materials and color mapping, White LEDs, Color and I-V characteristics, Optocouplers
Definition, Symbol, I-V characteristics, Metal semiconductor junction, Hot-carrier diode, schottky clamped transistor.
What is a Brushless DC motor? Brushless DC motors (BLDC motors), as their name suggests, operate without brushes. Unlike brushed
Nyquist contour, Nyquist stability criteria, Understanding Nyquist stability criteria using simple examples, Behaviour of poles and zeros in Nyquist plot,
Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFETs) are three-terminal semiconductor devices used in electronics to provide a robust high impedance with lower noise.
Fermi-Dirac distribution, Boltzman distribution, Quasi-fermi level in doped semiconductor, Carrier concentration, Density of states.
Electron-hole pairs in depletion region, Photoconductive effect, Photodiode construction, Photodiode circuits, Dark current, Quantum efficiency
Pulsating DC voltage (DC), Rectification, Power diode, Smooting capacitor, 1N400X diodes, Form factor, Ripple factor, Efficiency.
Zener breakdown vs. Avalanche breakdown, Forward bias operation, Reverse bias operation
A full wave rectifier is an electrical circuit used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). Unlike half-wave
A p-n junction is a combination of two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, in a single semiconductor substrate.
Kerwin–Huelsman–Newcomb (KHN) filter, Tow-Thomas Biquad filter, Cutoff/center frequency, Quality factor (Q), Gain (A), Applications.
Bandstop filter, Twin-T notch filter, Simple active notch filter, Mismatch tolerance of components.
Bandpass filter allows signals within a specific range of frequencies, called the passband, to pass through while attenuating signals outside
RC high pass filter, RL high pass filter, Equalisation, low frequency rejection, AC coupling.
RC low pass filter, RL low pass filter, Treble cut filter, High-frequency rejection, anti-aliasing filter.
An analog filter is a circuit that selectively allows certain frequencies to pass through while attenuating others. These are made
MOS vs BJT, Emitter, Base, Collector, NPN, PNP, Cutoff region, Saturation region, Forward active region, Carrier density, I-V characteristics, Gummel
Energy band diagram, Drift current, Terminals in a MOSFET, Threshold voltage, Small signal model, Channel length modulation, Pinch-off region, Linear
What is buck-boost (inverter) converter? A buck-boost converter is an energy-efficient DC-DC (direct current) converter that steps down and inverts
What is a boost converter? A boost converter is a DC-DC (direct current to direct current) converter used to step
Buck converter definition A buck converter, also known as a step-down converter, is a high-energy efficiency DC-to-DC converter that steps down
Circuit symbol, Working principle of insulated gate bipolar transistor, structure of IGBTs, advantages of IGBTs, modes of operation of IGBTs
High power, fast switching, DC model, Switching Model, Specifications of power MOSFET, Channel resistance, Parasitic capacitance, Heat dissipation, Packages available
How to use a root locus plot, Concepts of root locus, Starting and end points of root-locus, Asymptotes of root
Stability in control system, BIBO stable, Marginal Stable Unstable systems, Dominant and non-dominant poles, Phase margin and Gain Margin, Gain
Negative feedback system, Advantages and disadvantages, Transfer function
What is a bode plot? A Bode plot is a graphical representation of a closed-loop system’s loop-gain LG(s) frequency response.
Resistor inductor circuit An RL circuit, also known as a resistor-inductor circuit or RL network, comprises a combination of inductors
What is a DC motor? A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Inside
What is electronic speed controller (ESC)? The ESC, which stands for “electronic speed control”, regulates electric motor speed (throttle) and
What is Back EMF ? As the armature of a DC motor spins within a magnetic field, electromagnetic induction occurs,
Resistor Capacitor circuit (RC circuit) A resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit is a combination of a resistor and a capacitor connected in
Polyphase, 3-phase networks, star-delta transformation, T-pi network
What is Light dependent resistor ? Operating principle, Circuit symbol, Photoresistor vs Photodiode, Applications
A Schmitt trigger is a type of electronic circuit with hysteresis, primarily used to convert non-linear input signals into digital
The 555 timer, introduced in 1972 by Signetics, is a timing generation IC which is popular for its simplicity, affordability,
Setup time in a flip-flop means the time before the clock edge when the incoming data needs to be settled.
What is an H-bridge circuit? An H-bridge circuit forms the fundamental configuration for controlling a DC motor’s direction—either clockwise or
Non-idealities of operational amplifiers, Finite gain-bandwidth product, output impedance, input impedance, offset voltage/currents.
Op Amp is a short name for operational amplifiers. In electronics, it is used for operations like addition, subtraction, integration,
Q factor, Damping factor, Center / Resonance frequency, Condition for oscillations, Active LC oscillator circuit, Tuned circuit, LC Tank circuit