Class A amplifier Theory A Class A amplifier is the simplest and most fundamental type of power amplifier, widely recognized for its excellent linearity and low distortion. It has poor efficiency, as the device draws a constant current and dissipates significant power even without a signal. Despite these limitations, Class
What are amplifier classes? Amplifier classes are categories that describe how an amplifier handles the combination of input signal amplification, linearity, power-efficiency and electromagnetic interference to at a given size and cost. Classification helps engineers, designers, and consumers with essential information about how a particular amplifier operates, and what trade-offs
What is a transistor? A modern transistor is an electronic device that uses a semiconductor to amplify or switch electronic signals. It is usually a three-terminal device, where the current through two terminals is controlled using the voltage at the third terminal. Modern transistors are used to create microprocessors, cellular
Relays are electronic switches used when an independent low-voltage signal is needed to control a high-power circuit. They commonly use an electromagnet (coil) to operate their internal mechanical switching mechanism (contacts).
It is an easy-to-use three-terminal adjustable-voltage regulator. The LM317 voltage regulator circuit requires only two external resistors to set the output voltage. If a fixed resistor is connected between the output and adjustment pin, it can also be a precision current regulator.
What is Bridge rectifier? A bridge rectifier is an electrical circuit that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It is classified as a full wave rectifier circuit because the output of the circuit is always positive even if the input of the circuit is negative. Unlike half-wave rectifiers,
What is stability of control system ? Stability refers to the ability of a closed-loop system to maintain a state of equilibrium or to return to that state after being subjected to disturbances or changes. A stable control system is one in which the output remains bounded and does not
PWM’s full form is Pulse width modulation. It is a technique used in electronics to encode analog information in form of duty cycle of periodic pulses. It is a common technique used to control the power delivered to electronic devices.
What is a clipper circuit? Clipper circuits, also known as clippers, limiters, or slicers, selectively remove a portion of an input signal without affecting (distorting) the remaining waveform. They serve as wave-shaping circuits controlling the shape of the output waveform using linear and non-linear elements without using energy-storing components. In
What is Power factor in AC circuits? Electricity primarily travels through AC waveforms, and the efficiency of this transmission is quantified using the power factor. This factor is derived by dividing the average power by the “apparent” power. The apparent power is computed by multiplying the RMS values of voltage
What is a Brushed DC motor? Brushed DC motors represent one of the oldest, most cost-effective, and straightforward categories among DC motors. They utilize brushes for transferring current to the motor windings via mechanical commutation. The motor’s characteristics are influenced by the number of coils wound around it and the
Classification of DC motors DC motors vary based on the arrangement of connections between the field winding and the armature, with options for parallel, series, or both. Another key distinction lies in how the rotor receives power, either through brushes, where current is supplied via brushes, or brushless motors, where
What is Demultiplexer? A demultiplexer, also referred to as a Demux or data selector, functions as a digital circuit receiving a single input signal and logically connecting it to a specific output line among several, decided by control signals. Its fundamental role stands in contrast to that of a multiplexer,
Digital logic gates are essential components in digital circuits, executing logical operations on binary inputs (zeros and ones) to generate binary outputs. They’re interconnected to enable arithmetic, control, and memory operations, forming the basis of processors, memory units, and other digital devices.
A transmission gate is a type of analog switch used in digital and analog circuit design. It functions as a bidirectional switch, allowing signals to pass through or be blocked based on control signals. It is commonly used for signal routing, level shifting, isolation, and multiplexing purposes.
A multiplexer (often abbreviated as “mux”) is a digital circuit that selects one of several input signals and forwards it to a single output. It operates based on control signals to determine which input is transmitted to the output. Multiplexers are widely used in digital systems for data routing, signal
A D latch is a fundamental sequential logic circuit element used in digital electronics. It is commonly used to store one bit of information (either a 0 or a 1) and is a basic building block in constructing more complex circuits like registers, counters, and memory units.
What is an encoder? An encoder is a digital circuit that transforms M (< 2N) digital inputs into distinct code outputs (represented by N-bits), symbolizing the input’s position. Usually, 2N > M > N. It finds extensive application in digital systems, facilitating the conversion of many parallel input lines into
Flip-Flop vs Latch Flip-flops and latches serve as essential components in digital electronics, enabling the storage and transfer of binary data. Latches, being simpler, are foundational elements. In contrast, flip-flops provide enhanced control and synchronization with glitch immunity owing to their edge-triggered functionality. Flip-flops find extensive application in synchronous digital
What is a Flash ADC? One of the fastest ways to convert an analog signal to a digital one is to use a flash ADC. This type of ADC can convert very high frequencies of input signals, such as those found in oscilloscopes that operate in the GHz range. However,
Understand the working principles of Digital to Analog Converters (DACs), including resolution, LSB, architectures, and key specifications for accurate signal conversion.
What is Delta-Sigma ADC? The Delta-Sigma (ΔΣ) ADC is a closed-loop oversampling technique involving a 1-bit ADC, an error integrator, and a 1-bit DAC. It is designed to sample a slowly varying input signal multiple times, a process known as oversampling. This setup continuously tracks the input signal to ensure
What is an analog to digital converter (ADC)? An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic device or circuit that converts continuous analog signals, such as voltage or current, into discrete digital values. It essentially takes an analog input and converts it into a digital representation that can be processed and
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion is a mathematical technique employed to ascertain whether a polynomial’s roots lie on the left-hand side of the s-plane. It is a valuable tool as it allows one to assess the stability of a system without finding the roots of the characteristic equation.
Identifying positive feedback system, Transfer function of positive feedback system, Exponential growth, Runaway, Snowball effect
What is a control system? Types of control system, Open loop and closed loop control system, Advantages and disadvantages of different control system
Definition of PID control, Steady state error, Overshoot and ringing, Proportional-integral control, MATLAB modeling
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, Lenz’s law, Varying magnetic field, Direction of current, Faraday’s experiments
How is torque generated in a DC motor? When a DC machine operates under load, whether functioning as a motor or a generator, the rotor’s conductors carry current within the magnetic field of the air gap. Consequently, each of these conductors undergoes a force (F=iL X B) as they are
Magnitude and phase measurement across frequency, S-parameter measurement, Reflection parameters, Transmission parameters, Architecture of modern VNA, Ports
CMOS technology advantages, Substrate preparation, Oxidation, Etching, Patterning, Photoresists, Ion-implantation, Self-aligned source/drain patterning
Supply voltage fluctuations, local charge storage, Power supply rejection, Switching noise suppression, High frequency stability of amplifiers and pure analog blocks, Effective series inductance
Simplification of circuit analysis, Thevein-equivalent circuit, Norton equivalent circuit, multiple simultaneous equations to a single equation with a single variable
Electrical power measurement device, Principle of operation, Electrodynamometer, Digital Wattmeter, Applications, Working principle
Measurement of voltage, Shunt connection, Analog voltmeter, AC/DC moving iron voltmeter, Digital voltmeter
Measurement of current, Series connection, Analog ammeter, Shunt resistance, Digital ammeter
In reality, the voltage source’s output voltage depends on the current being drawn, and the current source’s output current depends on the voltage at the terminals.
Linear circuit analysis, voltage source replaced with shorts, current source replaced with open, KCL and KVL, Current through load resistance.
A typical ring oscillator consists of an odd number of NOT gates arranged in a loop, with its output alternating between two voltage levels to represent true and false. These inverters are connected in a series, with the output of the last feeding back to the first. Ring oscillators offer
Types of electronic oscillators, relaxation oscillator, harmonic oscillator, condition for oscillations.
The Barkhausen criterion is a mathematical condition to determine oscillation frequency. Sometimes it is also used to determine if the circuit is stable or not.
Relaxation oscillator, Square wave oscillator, RC time constant, Free running frequency.
Square and Triangular wave generator, Relaxation oscillator vs astable multivibrator, Open loop vs closed loop triangular waveform generator
A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is an electronic oscillator whose output frequency is determined by an input voltage. Frequency is the rate at which the phase changes. A voltage-controlled oscillator enables adjustments to this rate of phase change. Usually, VCOs are derived from known oscillator circuits. Various applications include telecommunications, signal
Piezo-electricity, Mechanical resonant, Series resonance, Parallel Resonance, Colpitts oscillator using crystal, Q-factor of crystal oscillator
Wein bridge circuit, Frequency response, Loop gain, Amplitude limiter circuit
Single RC stage phase shift, 3-stage RC phase shift oscillator, Barhausen-criteria
Symbol of thermistors, NTC, PTC, Steinhart-Hart equation, Self-heating, Thermal time constant, Applications of thermistors.
Linear silicon-based temperature sensor. Self-heating and temperature drift. Less calibration.
Photodiodes, Pinned photodiodes, RGB color model, Color sensor unit, Bayer mosaic pattern, Lag effect, CMOS active pixel image sensor
Bend sensor, Two terminal device, Passive element, Variable resistance, Potentiometer, Working principle
Working principle of PIR sensor, Detection element, Dual sensor setup, Fresnal lens, Signal processing, Applications of PIR sensor
Introduction An Accelerometer is a sensor or device that measures acceleration. It is a fundamental component of many modern technologies and is used to detect changes in velocity or acceleration in various applications. Principle of operation of an accelerometer Accelerometers work based on the principle of measuring the force or
Any negative feedback system with significant gain would attempt to minimize the error at the input terminals. This means that the steady-state value of the difference between the two input terminals would be nearly zero. This similarity in two input pins in negative feedback circuits is called virtual short.
Zero flux method, Accuracy, low-drift over temperature, Winding detection, Hall element detection, Flux gate detection
Op amp offset voltage, sources of offset in an amplifier, Way to reduce offset in an opamp, Trimming, Dynamic offset cancellation
Signal reconstruction, Sampling theorem, Aliasing, Anti-aliasing filter, Practical example of aliasing
What is a pipeline ADC? A pipeline ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) is a type of ADC that divides the conversion process into multiple stages, each of which contributes a portion of the final digital output. In a pipeline ADC, the input signal goes through a sequence of stages, each performing a
An optoisolator (or optocoupler) is an electronic component that provides electrical isolation between two circuits using light. It consists of a light-emitting diode (LED) and a photodetector (such as a phototransistor or a photodiode) housed in a single package. The LED emits light when current flows through it, and the
Hall element, Magnetic field measurement, Hall-sensor V-B characteristics, internal working diagram of Hall-sensor, Head-on detection and sideways detection
Direction of induced electric field, Changing magnetic flux, Lenz law and Faraday’s law
Average current, Switched capacitor low pass filter, Switched capacitor high pass filter, Active switched capacitor filter
Passband ripple, roll-off rate, 0.5% ripple chebychev filters, poles/order of filters.
Q enhancement, Positive feedback, Active filters, Low pass filter, RC filter, Transfer function
Diodes, MOSFETs, Gate drivers, Zero crossing detector
Taps, Wiper, Temperature coefficient, End-to-End resistance, SPI compatible serial interface, resistance tolerance, TPL0501
Losses in transformer, Capacitive or inductive loading of transformer, Power triangle.
5V regulator, heat dissipation, dropout voltage, 3-terminal device, application circuit, features, adjustable output voltage, etc.
Temperature independent reference, Startup circuit, PTAT, CTAT, Sub-1V bandgap circuit, CMOS compatible bandgap circuit.
Phase relationship, Construction, Mutual inductance, Primary and Secondary windings, Physical windings, Lenz law, Right-hand thumb rule.
Methods and necessity of galvanic isolation, Transformer, Relays, Opto-isolators, Hall-effect sensors, Applications
Kirchoff’s current law, Kirchoff’s voltage law, Node, Mesh, Branch, Loop, Lumped circuit, Distributed circuit
Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL), Meshes (loops), Supermesh, Dependent sources
Open load voltage (Thevenin voltage), Equivalent resistance by shorting voltage source and opening current sources (Thevenin resistance), Simplified network analysis
Power amplifier source and load resistance matching, Transmission line impedance, Radiofrequency impedance matching
Short load current (Norton current), Equivalent resistance by shorting voltage source and opening current sources (Norton resistance), Simplified network analysis
Ohm’s law defines the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance. It is a fundamental law in electronics—measurement setup of Ohm’s law, Short circuit, and open circuit.
Audio Frequency (20-20kHz), Isolation, Step-up/down transformer, Impedance matching, multitap audio transformers.
Turns ratio, Impedance ratio, Primary/secondary side of the transformer, Simplified load diagram of a transformer.
Principle of operation and voltage ratio, Construction and application, Copper savings in auto-transformer, Advantages and Disadvantages of an auto-transformer
The word translinear refers to the property of bipolar transistors (BJTs) where the transconductance of a BJT varies linearly with its collector current. This relationship stems from the logarithmic connection between the collector current and the base-emitter voltage.
IC 741 op amp is the most popular general-purpose operational amplifier in history. It can be found easily in the nearby radio shop. During its time, it was first opamp to solve the phase reversal problem.
Reference voltage, hysterisis, Debouncing, Window comparator, Opamp comparator, Schmitt trigger
Self inductance, Change in magnetic flux, Mutual inductance, Lenz’s law, Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Amplifier, comparator, super diode, voltage addition, voltage subtraction, voltage integration, voltage differentiator, voltage to current converter, peak detector, rectifier
A voltage differentiator is a circuit used in electronics to produce an output voltage that is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage. In simple terms, it’s a circuit that measures how quickly the input voltage is changing over time.
Difference amplifier, Buffer input, Precision gain, Integrated resistor’s mismatch, Monolithic instrumentation amplifier
A voltage integrator, also known as an integrator circuit, is a type of analog electronic circuit that performs mathematical integration of an input voltage signal with respect to time. It essentially outputs a voltage proportional to the integral of the input voltage over a certain period of time.
A difference amplifier, also known as a differential amplifier, is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between two input signals while rejecting any signals that are common to both inputs (common mode signals)
Inverting summing amplifier, Non-inverting summing amplifier, General summing amplifier equation, Audio mixer circuit, Signal processing, Analog to Digital converter
In a non-inverting opamp configuration, the output voltage is in the same phase as the input voltage. The input signal is connected to the non-inverting terminal of the opamp.
The inverting operational amplifier is a fixed-gain amplifier producing an opposite output polarity voltage for a given input voltage, as its gain is always negative.
Resistor color code, IEC markings, E-series resistors, Tolerance of resistors, Power rating of resistors, Temperature coefficient of resistors
Fixed and variable resistors, Sense resistors, Light dependent resistors, Potentiometers and trimpots
Capacitance, Voltage rating, Polarity, Tolerance, Equivalent series resistance (ESR), Equivalent series inductance (ESL), Tangent loss angle, Leakage current, Temperature stability, Ripple current rating etc
Polarized-unpolarized, Ceramic, MLCC, Aluminium electrolytic, Tantalum, Film capacitors, Super capacitors, Mica and paper capacitors
Capacitive reactance, impedance, phase shift, frequency, Capacitor charging and discharging, current-voltage relationship, filter circuits, AC analysis, power factor correction
Construction of supercapacitor, Principle of operation of supercapacitor, Electrochemical double layer capacitor (ELDC), Difference between Supercapacitor, electrolytic capacitor and Li-ion battery.
Unit of resistance, Ohms, Symbol of resistors and potentiometer, Types of resistors, Resistor color code, Power rating of resistor, Application of resistor
Linear voltage regulator, LDO (low dropout regulator), Error amplifier, Pass transistor, Efficiency, Supply noise/ripple, Voltage accuracy, Load-line regulation, Power rating
Efficiency, Buck, Boost, Buck-boost, Inverting, Flyback regulator, Continous and Discontinuous conversion mode
Zener clamp, MOV, clamp diodes, SCR crowbar, TVS (transient voltage suppressor), e-fuse
Construction, Advantages and disadvantages over electromechanical relays, No moving parts, Input circuit of SSR, Output circuit of SSR, Applications, AC load switching
Introduction, Advantages and disadvantages of triac, Symbol and construction of Triac, Operation of Triac, Current-Voltage relationship of Triac, Triac control circuit, Applications of Triac.
Bi-directional switch, No gate electrode, Symmetric current-voltage relationship, Triggering of Triacs, Holding current
Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), unidirectional, Construction, I-V characteristics, PNPN, Gate, Anode, Cathode, Diode vs SCR, Data-sheet specifications
Energy storage element, capacitance, parallel plate capacitor, permittivity, dielectric, voltage rating of capacitors
Small signal model, high-frequency and low-frequency model, Common Drain, Common Gate, Common Source, Transconductance, thermal noise, flicker noise, capacitances,etc.
Clipper: DC level cuts, Clamper: DC level shifter, RC and diode, Implementation and Waveform
Primary coil, Secondary coil, step-up, step-down, magnetic flux, Ideal and real transformer, losses in a transformer
Advantages of compound transistors, Darlington-pair (CC-CE), Sziklai Darlington, CC-CB stage, Frequency response, Input impedance, Phase reversal in BJT op-amps.
Inductance, Circuit analysis, Inductor symbol, Non idealities of inductors, Types of inductor, Air core, Toroidal etc.
Operation and working, Cross Section, Current and Voltage characteristics
Operation and working, Cross Section, Current and Voltage characteristics
Memory devices, Tunneling, Hot carrier injection, Aging, Non-volatile memory (NVM), Programming the NVM
A level shifter circuit is used to convert signals from one voltage level to another while maintaining the shape of the signal. This is commonly needed when interfacing different parts of a system that operate at different voltage levels, such as between microcontrollers, sensors, or other integrated circuits.
Simplified cross-section diagram of PNP BJT, Small signal model, Symbol of PNP BJT, Single stage amplifiers (CE, CC, CB), Biasing a PNP transistor in active mode.
Simplified cross-section diagram of NPN BJT, Small signal model, Symbol of NPN BJT, Single stage amplifiers (CE, CC, CB), Biasing a NPN transistor in active mode.
Parasitic BJT in CMOS, lateral n-p-n and vertical p-n-p, SCR, subtrate resistance, guard rings, Positive feedback, epitaxial process etc.
Dependent sources in a circuit are those whose voltage or current output is determined by another voltage or current within the same circuit.
What is R-2R resistor network/ladder? The R-2R resistor ladder as the name suggest is a network of resistors which has resistors of only two denominations, R and 2R. This network performs a direct conversion of a parallel digital data into an analog voltage. Each digital bit, such as b0, b1,
Architecture of SAR ADC, Binary search, Working of SAR ADC, Application of SAR ADC, Capacitive charge redistribution DAC
The SR flip-flop and latch, also known as the Set-Reset flip-flop, is a fundamental sequential logic circuit element used in digital electronics. It’s a type of flip-flop that stores one bit of data.
The JK flip-flop is a type of sequential logic circuit that serves as a memory element, capable of storing one bit of binary information. It’s an enhancement of the SR (Set-Reset) flip-flop, addressing the SR flip-flop’s “invalid” state issue when both the Set and Reset inputs are active simultaneously.
Inductors in series, Inductors in parallel, Series and Parallel circuits of inductors.
Capacitance in series, Capacitance in parallel, Series and Parallel circuits of capacitance, capacitor voltage divider step response and AC response.
Resistance in series, Resistance in parallel, Combination of series and parallel.
Kirchoff’s current law (KCL), Reference node, G matrix, Nodal analysis with a voltage source, Super node, Modified nodal analysis
Voltage drop, Power efficiency, Headroom, Feedback opamp, Bandwidth, Saturation, Output voltage range, Current limitation by opamp.
What is L293 motor driver IC? A motor driver, commonly an integrated circuit chip, plays a crucial role in managing motors within autonomous robots and control setups. It serves as a crucial intermediary between the microcontroller (such as Arduino) and the motors it directs. Given that motors often demand higher
Direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors, constant current drivers, Materials and color mapping, White LEDs, Color and I-V characteristics, Optocouplers
Definition, Symbol, I-V characteristics, Metal semiconductor junction, Hot-carrier diode, schottky clamped transistor.
What is a Brushless DC motor? Brushless DC motors (BLDC motors), as their name suggests, operate without brushes. Unlike brushed motors where brushes transmit current to rotor coils through a commutator, brushless motors have fixed coils on the stator, while the rotor consists of permanent magnets. In brushless motors, the
Nyquist contour, Nyquist stability criteria, Understanding Nyquist stability criteria using simple examples, Behaviour of poles and zeros in Nyquist plot, Procedure to draw Nyquist plot
Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFETs) are three-terminal semiconductor devices used in electronics to provide a robust high impedance with lower noise. JFETs act as voltage-controlled current sources and voltage-controlled switches
Fermi-Dirac distribution, Boltzman distribution, Quasi-fermi level in doped semiconductor, Carrier concentration, Density of states.
Electron-hole pairs in depletion region, Photoconductive effect, Photodiode construction, Photodiode circuits, Dark current, Quantum efficiency
Pulsating DC voltage (DC), Rectification, Power diode, Smooting capacitor, 1N400X diodes, Form factor, Ripple factor, Efficiency.
Zener breakdown vs. Avalanche breakdown, Forward bias operation, Reverse bias operation
A full wave rectifier is an electrical circuit used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). Unlike half-wave rectifiers, which only use one half of the AC waveform, full-wave rectifiers utilize both the positive and negative halves of the AC cycle, resulting in a more efficient conversion.
A p-n junction is a combination of two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, in a single semiconductor substrate. P N junctions are used to create transistors, pn junction diodes, and isolation between transistors.
Kerwin–Huelsman–Newcomb (KHN) filter, Tow-Thomas Biquad filter, Cutoff/center frequency, Quality factor (Q), Gain (A), Applications.
Bandstop filter, Twin-T notch filter, Simple active notch filter, Mismatch tolerance of components.
Bandpass filter allows signals within a specific range of frequencies, called the passband, to pass through while attenuating signals outside this range.
RC high pass filter, RL high pass filter, Equalisation, low frequency rejection, AC coupling.
RC low pass filter, RL low pass filter, Treble cut filter, High-frequency rejection, anti-aliasing filter.
An analog filter is a circuit that selectively allows certain frequencies to pass through while attenuating others. These are made using resistors, capacitors, inductors, transistors, and opamps.
MOS vs BJT, Emitter, Base, Collector, NPN, PNP, Cutoff region, Saturation region, Forward active region, Carrier density, I-V characteristics, Gummel plot.
Energy band diagram, Drift current, Terminals in a MOSFET, Threshold voltage, Small signal model, Channel length modulation, Pinch-off region, Linear region, Capacitances, Noise.
What is buck-boost (inverter) converter? A buck-boost converter is an energy-efficient DC-DC (direct current) converter that steps down and inverts the voltage from positive to negative voltages. The name is “buck” because the output is less than the input voltage (e.g., -10V output is less than +3.3V input). It has
What is a boost converter? A boost converter is a DC-DC (direct current to direct current) converter used to step up or increase a DC voltage from a lower to a higher level. It is also called a step-up converter. It converts a lower DC voltage input to a higher
Buck converter definition A buck converter, also known as a step-down converter, is a high-energy efficiency DC-to-DC converter that steps down the input voltage to a lower output voltage while maintaining the same polarity. It uses lossless components like inductors, capacitors, and switches to achieve high efficiency. Output voltage regulation
Circuit symbol, Working principle of insulated gate bipolar transistor, structure of IGBTs, advantages of IGBTs, modes of operation of IGBTs
High power, fast switching, DC model, Switching Model, Specifications of power MOSFET, Channel resistance, Parasitic capacitance, Heat dissipation, Packages available
How to use a root locus plot, Concepts of root locus, Starting and end points of root-locus, Asymptotes of root locus, Angle and centroid, Angle and magnitude criteria, Root locus rules
Stability in control system, BIBO stable, Marginal Stable Unstable systems, Dominant and non-dominant poles, Phase margin and Gain Margin, Gain crossover frequency and Phase crossover frequency
Negative feedback system, Advantages and disadvantages, Transfer function
What is a bode plot? A Bode plot is a graphical representation of a closed-loop system’s loop-gain LG(s) frequency response. It is a widely used tool in control systems engineering, electronics, and signal processing to analyze and design closed-loop linear time-invariant (LTI) systems. Bode plots provide insights into how a
Resistor inductor circuit An RL circuit, also known as a resistor-inductor circuit or RL network, comprises a combination of inductors and resistors and is commonly energized by a power source. It involves connecting an inductor and a resistor in either a parallel or series configuration. These circuits can be driven
What is a DC motor? A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Inside a DC motor, the input electrical energy, which is in the form of direct current (DC), gets transformed into mechanical rotation in the presence of a stationary magnetic field. Working
What is electronic speed controller (ESC)? The ESC, which stands for “electronic speed control”, regulates electric motor speed (throttle) and function, and is widely used in radio-controlled (RC) models (drones), particularly with brushless motors. It offers a 3-phase electric power source and can be a separate unit or integrated within
What is Back EMF ? As the armature of a DC motor spins within a magnetic field, electromagnetic induction occurs, inducing an electromotive force (emf) in the armature’s conductors, similar to a generator’s operation. This induced emf opposes the applied voltage (following Lenz’s law) and is referred to as back
Resistor Capacitor circuit (RC circuit) A resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit is a combination of a resistor and a capacitor connected in series or parallel to a voltage or current source. The resistor restricts the flow of current in the circuit, creating a voltage drop across it proportional to the current passing
Polyphase, 3-phase networks, star-delta transformation, T-pi network
What is Light dependent resistor ? Operating principle, Circuit symbol, Photoresistor vs Photodiode, Applications
A Schmitt trigger is a type of electronic circuit with hysteresis, primarily used to convert non-linear input signals into digital output signals. It helps in cleaning up noisy signals, squaring up waveforms, and providing a more stable output.
The 555 timer, introduced in 1972 by Signetics, is a timing generation IC which is popular for its simplicity, affordability, and versatility.
Setup time in a flip-flop means the time before the clock edge when the incoming data needs to be settled.
What is an H-bridge circuit? An H-bridge circuit forms the fundamental configuration for controlling a DC motor’s direction—either clockwise or counterclockwise. Comprising four switches (made using relays or transistors) arranged in the shape of the letter ‘H,’ this setup allows the motor to move in different directions. Engaging one pair
Non-idealities of operational amplifiers, Finite gain-bandwidth product, output impedance, input impedance, offset voltage/currents.
Op Amp is a short name for operational amplifiers. In electronics, it is used for operations like addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation, logarithms, gain, buffer (to amplify power), etc. That is how the name “operational” is justified.
Q factor, Damping factor, Center / Resonance frequency, Condition for oscillations, Active LC oscillator circuit, Tuned circuit, LC Tank circuit